Laura Mulvey

Laura Mulvey is a British feminist film theorist. Mulvey is best known for her essay, "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema", written in 1973 and published in 1975 in the influential British film theory journal Screen.  Her article is one of the first major essays that helped shift the orientation of film theory towards a psychoanalytic framework, influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan.She then used some of their concepts to argue that the cinematic apparatus of classical Hollywood cinema inevitably put the spectator in a masculine subject position, with the figure of the woman on screen as the object of desire and "the male gaze." 

In the era of classical Hollywood cinema, viewers were encouraged to identify with the protagonist of the film, who were and still are overwhelmingly male. Meanwhile, Hollywood women characters of the 1950s and '60s were, according to Mulvey, coded with "to-be-looked-at-ness" while the camera positioning and the male viewer constituted the "bearer of the look." Mulvey suggests two distinct modes of the male gaze of this era: "voyeuristic" (i.e. seeing woman as image "to be looked at") and "fetishistic" (i.e. seeing woman as a substitute for "the lack," the underlying psychoanalytic fear of castration).

The Male Gaze Slide Show

Video Analysis

I have made a table to break down my analysis of the three main music videos  i am planning to refer to and a fourth as a comparison piece. The four music videos are: Nelly - Tip Drill, N.E.R.D - Lapdance, Destiny's Child - Survivor and Aphex Twin - Windowlicker.

   

   

All of the elements i have picked out are the ones that i am planning to refer to in my final essay. by doing my planning this way, i will be able to compare the similarities and differences across all the four videos and be less likely to leave any aspect out in reference to the technical side of the music video, i.e. the camera angle, light, miss-en-scene etc. (Hard copy of analysis table avalible)

Music Video - Codes and Conventions

The purpose of a music video is to promote; this can the the single, album, artist, band, record company. they create, adapt or feed into a stars image whilst entertaining the audience. Music video should set the meaning of the song by the use of images.

Music videos can be categorised in terms of style. These are:

Performance - this is where the band/group/ artist are seen performing the song. 
                        
                         Band - A degree of authenticity of the performance is sought by the band and the director so we often find lip-syncing close-up, mimed playing of instruments, repetition of chorus shots to enhance repeatability, unusual camera shots and angles (e.g. the micro camera shots attached to the neck of a guitar, sweeping crane shots to film audience reaction to the band playing etc.) 
   
                          Solo - many of the band performance conventions plus choreographed dance routines to enhance repeatability. Also, a first-person mode of address directly engaging the viewer through the camera which involves many close-up shots of eyes rolling and gesturing and if the video is a hybrid form cutting between performance and narrative then the solo artist or band lead singer often becomes part of the narrative story, acting as narrator and participant at the same time. 

Narrative - the music video contains a series of events that both make sense to the audience and appear to be unified in time and space. So as to ensure repeated viewings and the effective marketing of the band/artist and song, the narrative code must be simply and suggestive, rather than realistic or detailed. 

Mixture - both performance and narrative based. the video may cut between the narrative and scenes of the artist performing the song.

Cameo - this is were the band/artist features in the narrative but doesn't perform

Animation - digitally/stop-frame

Audiovisual Technical Codes

Camera Shots 

Jumping directly between long shots, close ups and extreme close ups. Primarily the close up on the singer's face is the main generic convention for music videos. Also the extreme close up on the lips for lip synching. 


Camera Movement

whip pans, fast dolly track shots and fast overhead crane shots to follow the running, walking or dancing of performers. Also, fast vertical tilts and horizontal pans. 


Editing
Editing is a very important aspect to music videos. There are various terms, such as jump cutting, MTV style editing or montage editing. Creating the visually decanted experience of jumping from location to person to instrument without any normal narrative continuity. Instead it is often the beat or the rhythm of the track which provides the organising principle for editing movement. The editing moves so fast it creates the need for viewing repeatedly. There are exceptions though. Some continuity editing is used such as atmospheric dissolve shots.

Post-production digital effects

These effects are added to the video after the live sequences have been strung together. Examples are split-screens, colourisation, slow motion CGI (Computer Generated Illustration), etc

Lighting

Lighting sets the atmosphere and mood and is a key feature of music videos. Examples of how expressive lighting can affect the video are: extreme artificial light creates the bleaching effect on pop stars faces (making them seem ageless). Also, the use of switching from colour to black & white or sepia to indicate a shift from chorus to verse. Also, other lighting effects such as strobes or flashing needs to be identified. 


Mise en scene

Made up of a combination of props, costume, location, body language and facial expression. Look for the overall artistic concept in a video if there's a theme. the video's mise en scène may follow the need for authenticity in performance videos by using the concert hall or rehearsal studio setting or an intentional parodic setting to exaggerate star image as in many rap and R 'n' B videos with a focus on glamorous icons such as exotic locations, beautiful cocktail bars and stunning beachside houses with infinity pools. 

Idea of Spectacle
Music videos may be considered to be examples of spectacle, where the performers often look directly at the viewers, directly interacting with the viewer. in the case of men, this involves the look of the character towards the viewer. the male is seen to be addressing the viewer directly. he is supposed to be singing directly for the viewer. the female figure is often an object of an erotic gaze, object of male desire which is a voyeuristic gaze.

Research Methods

Question: 

"To what extent does the representation of women in contemporary R 'n' B music videos present stereotypically dominant views of female sexuality?"

Research is fundamental to all aspects of media production and is the essential starting point for productions of any size. It can be used to determine many factors of future productions, such as: the financial viability, gather information relevant to the content, assist the planning of technical and logistical requirements.

There are four main methods of research :- Primary, Secondary, Quantitative and Qualitative.

Primary Research 
This is research to obtain original data using such methods as interviews, questionnaires, focus groups and observation. Primary research is carried out for a specific reason and invovles the use of a range of different techniques to obtain this new data.

When planning primary research it it important to:
                             - think carefully about what you are trying to find out
                             - choose an appropriate sample
                             - decide upon an appropriate research technique
                             - be aware of the size, scope and timescale of the task ahead.

One main methods used in primary research is asking people questions. These questions can be presented to the public by, one-to-one interviews with a selected number of people, the production of a questionnaire (this will allow a larger group of people to be surveyed), or organise a focus group.

One-to-one interviews can be a very effective way of recieving reliable, qualitative data from selected individuals, however this method can also be very time consuming.

Secondary Research
Secondary research is based on the use of pre-existing data and information that has already been gathered by other people or organisations. It it often available in books, journals or via the Internet.

Quantitative Research
Type of research that is based on measurable and quantifiable facts and information, producing numerical and statistical data. Quantitative research is about asking people for their opinions in a structured way so that you can produce hard facts and statistics to guide you. To get reliable statistical results, it’s important to survey people in fairly large numbers and to make sure they are a representative sample of your target market.

Both primary and secondary research can produce quantitative data. this includes rating, circulation figures and marketing analysis, as well as the counting and measuring of items of space in a content analysis of a media product. 

Qualitative Research
This is the type of research that is based on opinions, attitudes and preferences rather than hard facts.  Once again, both primary and secondary research techniques can be used to produce qualitative data. The collection and use of qualitative data is an important aspect within the media industry as it is used to obtain individuals and groups thinkings and feelings about particular media products. 

Product Placement

Many musicians incorporate brands into there music videos. Both the move of videos form television to the Internet and the attenpt by record labls to make videos a revenuse source, have contributed to the growinf popularity of product placement in music videos. According to a report released in June of 2010 by PQ Media (a research firm) the amount of money spent on product placement in recorded music grew eight percent in 2009 compared with previous years.

Product Placement in Films
(Pizza Hut)

Product Placements on magazine
covers (Starbucks)

Product Placement in Music Videos
(Diet Coke)

Product Placement in Television Soaps
(Nationwide)

The money is often used to offset and make profit of the videos cost. Patrick Quinn, chief executive of PQ Media, stated that revenue from product placement in music videos totaled $15 million to $20 million in 2009, more than double the amount on 2000.

 brand marketers will spend an estimated $8.25 billion on them worldwide in 2012, rebounding solidly from the $6.25 billion spent in 2009 during the Great Recession.

For years, the opportunities for product placement — advertisers like to call it “integration” — in music videos were limited. MTV was the dominant outlet for videos, and its policy prohibited blatant plugs in videos, so the network would often blur brand labels or ask for a new version without the placement. But the airtime MTV devotes to music videos has decreased sharply, and the Web emerged as a preferred destination for fans, opening the door for labels and advertisers.

Rio Caraeff, the chief executive of Vevo, the music video network started late last year in partnership with YouTube, said the company aimed to enable product placement in videos.

Purpose of Research

Reasons for research
There are two main forms to research undertaken by the media industries; market research and production research.

Market research is the collection and analysis of information about the market within which a particular product will compete with other products for an audience and for revenue.

Production research is related to the production process itself

Market Research
Effective and successful media products tarer the rigth audeince and communicate to them in an effective way. As the media industry becomes more fragmented so comptitions for a share of the audience becomes more intense. Knowing who your target audience are, and what makes them tick, is therefore increasingly important.

When doing market research it is important that you are looking at the following aspects.
                        - Statisical data about audience size and composition for a particular media product
                        - The extent to which a potention audience are aware of a media product or service
                        - What people think about particular products and services and what their patterns of behaviour are
                        - Market competitors who are competing for a share of the audience and revenue with similar products

The media marketplace is highly competitive and media production will often undertake detailed researcj into their target market, or more commonly commission other companies to undertake research on their behalf.

Market Research Organisations
there are various organisations whose main role is to undertake research on media audiences and products. the findings of their research often become a commercial product in its own right that is then sold on to media companies.
Some of this information is also frely avaliable to the public. you can find examples by visting the websitrs of the organisations listed below, as well as looking in the media pages of newspapers such as The Guardian and The Independent, and in specialist magazines such as Broadcast.

Nation Readership Survey (NRS) provides information to the industry on who reads what publication.

Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC) provides circulation information to the newspaper and magazine industry.

Broardcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB) provides estimates of the number of people watching television programmes.

Radio Joint Audience Research Limited (RAJAR) provides estimates of the number of people listening to radio programmes.

When researching to produce a product age, gender, culture and ethnicity, income and social class should all be considered. Segementing the audience in these ways make it eaiser for media producers to identify and target groups of people with the same needs and wants.

Age is one of the most significant and often used categories within the media; often seperated into
           - 15 years and younger
           - 16 to 24 years
           - 25 to 44 years
           - 45 to 64 years
           - 65 years and over
With this said different research will use age divisions that are most appropriate for the task. for example the 15 years and under may need to be sub divided.

Many media products are targeted at a specific gender group, most obviously evidenced in the magazine market.

Media today is pushed to an audience all over the world, targeting different cultures and ethnic groups.

Finally income and social class are highly considered - annual salaries, types of jobs, social class. By researching into a persons disposable income is important, so that, in advertising for example, the right images, slogans, products are targeted to the right audience. advertisng a top of the range car to households with a low disposible income would not work.









Production Research
When planning a new media product the company making the programme, film, magazine, website or game will need to undertake a great deal of product research. this will provide content and gather material to allow them to write and develop the new product, research the commercial viability of actually making the product and throughly research and plan the production and post-production stages to ensure that it all runs as smoothly as possible.

Some of this research will be generic, but much of it will depend on the type of product being planned. when researching you may use secondary research to find out more specific information about the product, as well as conducting primary research in the form of interviews and sample members of the population to try to understand their viewpoints. the information collected can then be used to inform the writing, with some of the quotes used in the article itself. some form of picture research should be taken to find suitable images to accompany the article.

Production research not only looks into the content for the production, but is also the undertaking of  researching the cost (of hiring equipment, staff as well as post-production and distribution services required). additionally location scouting will need to be done to identify suitable venues for filming, assist in the planning of certain shots, and assess any problems or health and safety issues that the crew might face.

It is important that the iformation collected during this process is clearly, carefully and accurately logged, organsied and stored to ensure it is secure, while also allowing easy access and cross referencing.

Viability
Another important purpose of production research is to demonstrate that your planned products is viable. the viability of the product needs to be tested at a number of different levels: financial viability, necessary skills for the production process, availability of correct equipment and technology, help and support requirement and enough time to produce the product.

Research into different ways to fund or generate income from your product are highly necessary, allowing you to balance the amount of income against the costs of the production and the distribution. This will show to what extent your proposed product would be viable were it to be launched into the competitive media market.

A crucial source of income for many of the media products is advertising. Sponsorship of individual products by commercial companies is becoming increasingly popular and should be seen as a potential income source. The idea of a grant, loans and commission to help support the costs of media production should also be looked into. there are a number of public and private schemes that are designed to support creative production, including those run by Arts Council, the British Film Institute and the National Lottery.

within your budget you will need to include costing for any copyright material you plan to use, distribution of product, marketing and promotion. ways to promote your product may include, sponsored events where your target audience is present, publicity stunt to broaden the attention and hype surrounding the product, using a celebrity to endorse the product or produce merchandise. With all aspects of the media industry, you will have a specified timescale to work to and a deadline by which your work must be completed.